doi: 10.56294/mw2024484

 

REVIEW

 

Influence of motivation on job performance: An analysis based on Vroom and McClelland

 

Influencia de la motivación en el desempeño laboral: Un análisis basado en Vroom y McClelland

 

Benjamín Villegas Alcántar1  *

 

1Universidad de Guadalajara, Maestría en Administración de Negocios. Jalisco, México.

 

Cite as: Villegas Alcántar B. Influence of motivation on job performance: An analysis based on Vroom and McClelland. Seminars in Medical Writing and Education. 2024; 3:484. https://doi.org/10.56294/mw2024484

 

Submitted: 01-10-2023                   Revised: 21-02-2024                   Accepted: 07-05-2024                  Published: 08-05-2024

 

Editor: PhD. Prof. Estela Morales Peralta

 

Corresponding Author: Benjamín Villegas Alcántar *

 

ABSTRACT

 

Introduction: the research addressed the study of motivation and its impact on the work performance of workers in companies in Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco. The role of thoughts, perceptions and emotions in organizational behavior was taken into account, using Vroom’s theory of expectations and McClelland’s theory of needs as a theoretical basis. A quantitative approach with correlational and non-experimental cross-sectional design was applied to analyze the relationship between the identified variables.

Development: the study allowed classifying motivational factors into three categories: achievement, power and affiliation, according to McClelland, and expectancy, instrumentality and valence, according to Vroom. It was established that motivation varies according to the organizational context and the individual characteristics of the workers. The perception of fairness and the relationship between effort and reward were determinants of employee satisfaction and productivity. Likewise, it was identified that the organizational structure and leadership influence the level of commitment and performance of the collaborators.

Conclusions: the findings confirmed that motivation is key in the management of human talent, as it directly impacts productivity and the fulfillment of organizational objectives. It was concluded that companies should implement strategies based on motivational theories to optimize the management of their personnel. It is recommended to continue deepening the study of work motivation in different contexts to strengthen its application in business management.

 

Keywords: Motivation; Job Performance; Expectations; Leadership; Human Capital.

 

RESUMEN

 

Introducción: la investigación abordó el estudio de la motivación y su impacto en el desempeño laboral de los trabajadores en empresas de Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco. Se tomó en cuenta el papel de los pensamientos, percepciones y emociones en el comportamiento organizacional, utilizando como base teórica la teoría de las expectativas de Vroom y la teoría de las necesidades de McClelland. Se aplicó un enfoque cuantitativo con diseño correlacional y no experimental transversal para analizar la relación entre las variables identificadas.

Desarrollo: el estudio permitió clasificar los factores motivacionales en tres categorías: logro, poder y afiliación, según McClelland, y expectativa, instrumentalidad y valencia, según Vroom. Se estableció que la motivación varía en función del contexto organizacional y las características individuales de los trabajadores. La percepción de equidad y la relación entre esfuerzo y recompensa fueron determinantes en la satisfacción y productividad del personal. Asimismo, se identificó que la estructura organizativa y el liderazgo influyen en el nivel de compromiso y desempeño de los colaboradores.

Conclusiones: los hallazgos confirmaron que la motivación es clave en la gestión del talento humano, ya que impacta directamente en la productividad y el cumplimiento de objetivos organizacionales. Se concluyó que las empresas deben implementar estrategias basadas en teorías motivacionales para optimizar la administración de su personal. Se recomienda seguir profundizando en el estudio de la motivación laboral en diversos contextos para fortalecer su aplicación en la gestión empresarial.

 

Palabras clave: Motivación; Desempeño Laboral; Expectativas; Liderazgo; Capital Humano.

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

Research is intrinsic to human beings' nature. By instinct, they investigate the phenomena that surround them (Sampieri, 2014). Relationships are established between different facts, and rational explanations are sought for human behavior. This research analyzes precisely the thoughts that the individual experiences and how these influence the activities they carry out at work.

Likewise, since the beginnings of scientific management, the study and understanding of human behavior in a work context have been a subject of study. The perceptions, emotions, and feelings experienced by the worker and their influence on performance are areas of opportunity and action. The research aims to add theoretical foundations that will help create future organizational strategies.

On the other hand, if we want to understand the relationship between the thinking and the acting of individuals in an organization, motivation must undoubtedly be considered as the central axis of the research. However, its concept can present different definitions; as Chiavenato (2009) comments, different authors expose their point of view about what should be understood as motivation; we will take one of the most straightforward definitions, “to move,” because, as Hernandez (2002)(1,2,3) specifies, the most direct meaning of motivation lies in its etymological root, which refers to everything that causes a movement in our behavior.

The research considered three companies in the Tepatitlán de Morelos and Jalisco area, each with different characteristics. Therefore, the results seek to generalize trends not specific to a particular type of company but to the workers in the region, which is why the results may be helpful in the administration of Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco.(4,5,6,7)

The study has a quantitative focus, with a correlational scope and a non-experimental cross-sectional design. Although the study of motivation and performance is qualitative, these indicators were translated into numerical scales for statistical analysis. For data collection, a measurement instrument was designed and validated. This methodological tool can be used for future research work.(8,9,10)

Finally, in the methodological part of the research, Victor Vroom's theory of expectations was taken as the basis of the motivational process and McClelland's theory of needs as the theory of content, correlating the variables that each theory possesses; conclusions were drawn about the methods and motives that influence the behavior and therefore the performance of the workers.(11)

 

Objective

The purpose of this study is to analyze the influence of thoughts, perceptions, and emotions on the behavior and work performance of workers in companies in Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco. Motivation will be considered the central axis of the research, and a quantitative and correlational approach based on the theories of Vroom's expectations and McClelland's needs will be used to generate theoretical foundations for the creation of effective organizational strategies.

 

DEVELOPMENT

Background

There are studies such as Muñiz (2010) and Ugalde (2013) establish that factors such as motivation and its processes should be analyzed qualitatively; however, in the present work, a quantitative correlation was made between dependent and independent variables in the research numerical ratios were assigned through the use of scales, the variables that were identified are those established by McClelland's theory of needs: achievement, power and affiliation, and Vroom's expectations theory: expectancy, instrumentality and valence.

Research on work motivation indicates clear parameters; certain factors remain fixed regardless of the area or type of organization. However, Rosas (2008) conducted research on work motivation in a large public organization; taking into account his results and comparing them with the research of Flores (2011)(12), who takes as a case study a small private company, a clear difference is perceived between the motivators of human resources, taking into account the profit motive and size of the company in which they work. For this reason, part of the problem consists of classifying which factors are specific to the area and which are general.

Similarly, Barrientos (2012)(13) concludes that customer perception is a significant indicator in the motivation of human resources, so the problem does not only develop internally; the basis of a motivation model is sought that aims to optimize the processes within the company, as well as to influence how it is perceived by society positively, the changes posed by the problem are not limited to the implementation of new processes, the training and accompaniment of human resources are involved, as established by Díaz (2015) in his research; the performance of an organization will be related to the training of its employees.

On the other hand, substantial research was found on work motivation. However, there are no references in the area in which this project is intended to be carried out, or case studies that focus on this understanding; Rojas (2013)(14) and Sum (2015)(15) have carried out research work detailing the relationship between motivation and work performance with a case study approach, so the results of this study cannot be generalized. Similarly, when analyzing Velasco (2012), the same situation arises. The research approach is in the form of a case study, which does not detract from the results but limits them to the application in the company under study.

Job performance through job satisfaction is a topic of study that is explored in depth by Contreras (2016); in his research work, he analyzes the motivational variables of Herzberg's two-factor theory to determine its relationship with job satisfaction and performance, and his conclusions confirm that both motivational and hygiene factors influence satisfaction and performance, Contreras Montoya states that factors are predominant such as salary and working conditions, this study can be taken as a reference when contrasting the results of the research.

 

Company

The critical concept of the company is highly relevant in the field of administration; it is the economic-social unit where all the strategies, techniques, theories, and other postulates of administration come to life (Münch, 1997)(16); it is unimaginable to conceive of administrative science without its applications in business, which is why this research focuses its study on the analysis of companies since it is in these where business models are developed, as well as being the final place where administrative strategies are put to the test.

The company's importance can be as varied as the number of approaches with which it can be studied. From a practical point of view and in terms of its usefulness to society, it is one of the primary sources of work, in addition to producing goods and services for both the public and private sectors. It is the unit where research is carried out, and the results obtained are implemented.

 

Classification

The classification of companies is fundamental for an accurate study of motivation. The criteria by which they are divided influence workers and, above all, their behavior and motivational factors. The most common classification criteria are their size, purpose, economic activity, and legal regime. It is worth mentioning that there are more classifications, which can be as varied as the multiple factors involved in their administration.

 

Figure 1. Classification of companies

 

Administrative Process

The administrative process is a fundamental part of administration. As mentioned above, its stages are defined by a series of systematic activities which can be given different names depending on the author. For the present research, we will use the model proposed by Lyndall Urwick, which is based on four main stages: planning, organization, direction, and control (Hernandez, 2002).(18,19,20)

 

Figure 2. Administrative process cycle

 

As mentioned, the administrative process can be visualized differently; each author names the phases according to their perception and understanding. However, there is one more way to study the administrative process: through its mechanical and dynamic phases; as mentioned by Lyndall Urwick (Münch, 2014)(21,22) the mechanical phase corresponds to all the activities related to the design of plans and strategies aimed at achieving the planned objectives, for this reason, planning, and organization are considered to be part of the mechanical phase, whereas in the dynamic phase, all the activities established in the mechanical phase are executed and carried out, for this reason management and control are considered to be part of the dynamic phase.

Human motivation and behavior involve activities from both the mechanical and the dynamic phases; in the first instance, strategies are created for personnel management, which is why, in what follows, we will analyze the relationship of human capital with planning and organization; it is in the dynamic phase that the personnel and their administration gain greater strength, it is in this phase that strategies focused on human resources are implemented through management, through control the performance obtained is analyzed and evaluated, that is why we will study the relationship of human behavior and motivation with the direction and control of the administrative process.

 

Figure 3. Phases of the administrative process

 

Planning

The first natural step in administration is planning. This phase of the administrative process aims to replace improvisation with methods based on scientific processes (Taylor, 1911).(22,23,24,25) In planning, probable situations must be projected so that the manager can anticipate these events. Planning aims to investigate before acting (Hernandez, 2002)(26,27), this involves the creation of plans and strategies as well as a clear visualization of the objectives.

The relationship between planning and human resources is close, specifically with behavior and motivation. In this part of the process, the company's mission and vision are established, and the organizational structure is established to be most suitable for obtaining the desired objectives. For this reason, the personnel's development in the dynamic phase will depend to a large extent on the importance given to them during the planning process.

Understanding the motivational factors that have the most significant impact on the organization's collaborators can become an important tool when elaborating planning strategies. As Münch (2014)(28,29,30) mentions, one of the objectives of planning is reducing threats, taking advantage of opportunities, and creating motivation and personnel administration programs based on the perfect occasion to minimize risks and obtain the maximum use of personnel.

Proper planning must be clear about the organization's objectives, established qualitatively and quantitatively. The expected results must be precise. As mentioned by Sum (2015)(31,32), the best performance criteria are those formulated from the planning stage. In this way, action plans can be set in relation to the established goals. For this reason, having a prior vision of the individual's motivational factors and their relationship with performance is the basis for the elaboration of strategies during planning.

 

Organization

Once the objectives and goals of the company have been established in the planning phase, the organization is in charge of the design of the processes that will be carried out during the control phase. However, the organization is still considered to be in the mechanical phase of the administrative process; it is the one that has a more direct relationship with the practical part; in the context of small and medium-sized enterprises, the organization should be more flexible, more focused on problem-solving (Arriaga, 2007)(33,34,35), a rigid organization that modifies the structure of the company will end up wearing down small and medium-sized enterprises.

Creating an organizational structure cannot be considered an activity belonging to the organization process. As Robbins (2005) comments, the organizational structure and design depend on the mechanical phase of administration, and its influence is evident in the whole administrative process; through these foundations, the form and philosophy of all the personnel within the company are established. This is the main reason for the importance of the organizational phase in human resources; the correct understanding of the behavior of individuals is the basis for the establishment of an organizational structure that is efficient and consistent with the objectives of the administration.

Administration through business practices has changed the perception of personnel management (López, 2005). Currently, the administration is not based on the momentary satisfaction of human resources; the organization seeks the integral and long-term development of employees; this translates into more conscious planning and organization of human capital; these two phases of the administrative process create processes and strategies that are efficient in achieving objectives. However, they do not neglect the needs and behavior of the staff; achieving the objectives established from the planning and the systems designed by the organization should always consider the development and management of human resources.

 

Management

All stages of the administrative process have particular characteristics. As Hernandez (2002) explains, the administrative process is a cycle, and the success of each stage is key to the proper functioning of the company. However, management is presented as a stage in which all the planned objectives and organized strategies are executed. Münch (2014) establishes the importance of management at such a level that directing can be confused with administering. In this part of the process, the administration executes the plans and processes established in the organizational structure.

The relationship between management and individual behavior is a subject of study. Robbins (2005)(36) mentions that organizational behavior deals specifically with the actions of people at work; if Münch (1997) sees management as the part in which plans are executed through personnel, we can take these two principles to relate the management process directly to that of human resources, Villarreal (2010) carried out a piece of research in which, based on management, he analyzed the entire administrative process. In the results of Villarreal's study, it was established that proper personnel management is the basis for achieving objectives.

Decision-making in administration arises at all times, from planning to control. However, it is in management where decision-making takes on a more practical meaning; in this part of the process, the decisions will influence internal and external factors of the company (Münch, 1997). Considering internal factors, human resources is one of the relevant parts of decision-making. The coordination and administration of personnel is one of the main functions of management.

Fayol refers to management as an art because, besides requiring knowledge and technical bases, a great deal of sensitivity is necessary to coordinate personnel (Hernandez, 2002). It is important to mention that Fayol also referred to the management phase as responsible for making what he called the social body function, referring to the personnel in each area.

 

Leadership

Leadership is one of the qualities of managers (Hernandez, 2002)(37,38), it is a broad subject, and its relationship with management and human resources is natural. The discussion between the requirements that a leader and a manager fulfill is a topic among authors. While some equate them, others make apparent differences (Robbins, 2005)(39,40), each author presents their point of view on how the skills and attitudes that form a leader are acquired. The historical discussion between natural leadership and the leader that is made. 2005), each author presents their point of view on how the aptitudes and attitudes that make a leader are acquired, the historical discussion between natural leadership or the leader who makes himself, independently of this discussion, they all agree on their abilities and the importance of leadership among staff and management.

The qualities that a leader should have are focused on the management of personnel; it is for this reason that within the administrative process, it is in this phase that leadership becomes most important; from the planning and organization of strategies, the factor of the leader must be considered as an elementary component of the implementation of action plans, the characteristics of the leader focus on getting the most out of the staff, however, always taking into account the satisfaction and development of human capital, the leader will seek to satisfy the needs of the individual in order to motivate him or her in the best way.

Leadership styles are defined by a series of patterns that occur in the behavior of leaders. For the present investigation, we will analyze the Managerial Grid model presented by Münch (2014). It classifies leaders according to two basic principles: interest in results and concern for those around them. It is precisely in this classification of leadership that the usefulness of knowing the impact of motivational factors on performance takes on a more significant force. If the motivational needs of the staff are known, in addition to satisfying them, the leader will be able to obtain high results.

 

Control

The importance of control lies in its relationship with planning. In control, the results obtained about those planned are evaluated (Münch, 2014). In addition to correctly evaluating the yields obtained and in control, modifications and adaptations to plans and strategies are made to restart the administrative process. This indicates that the administrative process cannot be visualized linearly. The correct way to carry out the process is cyclical, where each phase takes information from the previous part and contributes to the following process.

The control phase can be divided into three parts. In the first instance, objective measurements of the performance obtained must be made. For this part, it is necessary to have validated and previously established parameters. The results must be presented realistically without misinterpretations or personal judgments. Secondly, the objectives obtained should be compared with those planned at the beginning of the process, and finally, the necessary modifications should be made to correct any deviations. Similarly, if the results were as expected, reinforcement activities should be carried out to continue with positive results.

 

Work performance evaluation

Performance evaluation is a natural activity in organizations. Sometimes, it is carried out informally in small companies, and medium and large companies usually have pre-established systems that help them evaluate and provide feedback on the results obtained (Ivancevich, 2015); as a fundamental activity of the control process, performance evaluation has different purposes, the most significant of which are: evaluating programs and strategies, establishing new action plans and detecting areas of opportunity in the company's processes.

On the specific issue of performance evaluation and its relationship with motivation, Chiavenato (2007) proposes an interaction between three variables to determine the level of individual performance. The factors involved are the motivation of the employees, their abilities, and the parameters established for the position. In the planning phase, each organization describes the desired goals and the parameters with which it will qualify for the results. In this way, an objective evaluation can be achieved that can be used for decision-making.

 

Functional areas

Any company's functions, regardless of size, can be classified into five areas, which are called functional areas (Münch, 2014). Their correct functioning and interaction are directly related to the organization's success. Also called functional departments, the functional areas that are normally established in a company are production, marketing, finance, systems, and human resources.

 

Figure 4. Functional areas

 

The interaction of functional areas is the basis of the success of any organization; the functioning of its areas should not be seen in isolation; the human resources department works together with finance to draw up motivational plans and financial incentives for a complete performance evaluation of the production department must be in communication with human capital, in the same way, information systems provide data and statistics applicable to the administration and optimization of personnel.

 

Production

The production department is responsible for all activities related to product creation. The production area manages everything from activities related to the reception of raw materials to the storage of finished products. In service and marketing organizations, this department is called “operations” (Münch, 2014)(41,42), the activities carried out in this department can be summarized as follows:

·      Operations management.

·      Product design and development.

·      Quality control.

·      Management of inputs or raw materials.

 

Marketing

Also known as “sales,” the marketing department is an activity necessary for the survival and development of any organization. Its importance lies in the fact that it is the department in charge of selling the product or service that the company creates. Its functions are as varied as the size of the company demands. In small organizations, it is only in charge of selling and distributing products or services. In contrast, the marketing department manages the sales force in large organizations,  creating plans and strategies, market research, and other activities that contribute to sales (Hernandez, 2002).(43,44)

 

Finance

The administration of economic resources and their subsequent management depends on the finance department. In addition to the administration of economic assets, finance analyzes activities related to procurement and allocation and creates budget plans for the organization's income and expenses. This department is responsible for accounting, costs, investments, credits, and other operations demanded by the company. Finance approval depends on realizing many of the plans proposed in other company functional areas. When the proposals of other departments involve a cost, the finance department usually gives the final approval (Münch, 2014).(45)

 

Systems

Successful decision-making depends on the certainty with which it is carried out. Every decision begins with analyzing information, and in turn, information begins with data analysis. The IT department, the systems department, manages information technologies to analyze the data necessary for decision-making or creating strategies for any area or department. Some of the most important functions of the systems department are communications, the design of enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, networks, and computer security (Münch, 2014).(46)

 

Human resources

The human resources department carries out all the functions related to the company's personnel, including activities such as directing and controlling the actions of employees and optimizing the performance of each collaborator in the organization. Also called the human talent department, human capital, or industrial relations (Münch, 2014), the human resources area is in charge of all the tasks that arise concerning personnel, from their recruitment to achieving their maximum performance.

The correct administration of human resources has a positive effect not only on the organization but also on the people who benefit from it (Chiavenato, 2007). It is the only department in the company that has human beings as its raw material, and obtaining their maximum performance must have ethical foundations. The physical and mental integrity of the individual must be above any goal or objective of the organization.

 

Human resource management

Human resource management refers to all the phases involved in managing personnel in the organization. The activities can be classified into the following types of processes (Chiavenato, 2007):(47)

·      Staff integration process: this includes the initial phases of human resources in the organization, including activities such as recruitment, selection, and planning.

·      Staff organization process: this category includes job design, analysis and description, and performance evaluation.

·      Staff retention processes: this part of the process involves the administration of salaries and wages, employment benefits, and health and safety issues.

·      Staff development process: this phase includes training, personal and organizational development, and factors such as motivation.

 

Human process

Within the human resources department, the human process includes all activities related to the development of the individual. Activities such as motivation, training, the satisfaction of needs, and constant evaluation and feedback of results are carried out within this area (Ivancevich, 2015)(48,49), always seeking to achieve optimal worker performance and, consequently, achieving the goals set. Organizations that plan their objectives based on the human process factor are more likely to succeed.

 

Motivation

Motivation is considered a fundamental element of management in the first instance and of administration in general. Personnel administration involves particular and, to a certain extent, changing factors, which is why the subject of motivation, like that of leadership, forms an essential part of the study of management. Most authors and books on administration dedicate space to talking about motivation and its relationship with the dynamic part of the administrative process.

The concept of motivation, as mentioned, takes on different forms depending on the author who presents it. Münch (1997)(50) defines it as moving, driving, or promoting an action in one of its simplest expressions. This definition can be applied to more general contexts, whereas the concept presented by Robbins (2005) is more applicable to the purposes of the present research. Robbins defines motivation as ” The set of processes responsible for an individual's desire to make a great effort to achieve organizational objectives, conditioned by the capacity of the effort to satisfy some individual need” (Robbins, 2005, p.392). This concept mentions the correlation between motivational processes and the achievement of organizational objectives.

From the concept of motivation, we can obtain three variables: willingness, ability, and opportunity. Through interaction, we obtain work performance. Ivancevich (2015) writes about this trident, which he presents as determinants of individual behavior. Similarly, Ivancevich comments that the successful relationship of the three components does not guarantee high levels of performance as external factors influence the achievement of objectives.

From a psychological point of view, Chiavenato (2009) defines motivation as a process, a term that is in line with the perception of the present investigation and independent of a work context. Motivation directly influences individual behavior. Understanding the process of satisfying desires and needs and then focusing and directing reactions towards previously determined objectives is the importance of motivation within the management phase of the administrative process.

 

Importance of motivation in administration

One of the aims of administration is to improve and optimize organizational performance. To carry out this task, different strategies and techniques are used, and different variables, both external and intrinsic to the organization and its individuals, are taken into account. Motivation is one of the most relevant concepts in this desire to maximize performance.

The importance of motivation in human behavior is not questioned (Ivancevich, 2015). However, motivation is not the only actor involved in obtaining the desired results, which is why its study and precise understanding are important tasks in administrative sciences. To continue, it is necessary to place motivation in the theoretical world of administration.

In the first instance, one of the most important tools in administration was taken: The administrative process, which since its creation by Fayol, has been modified by each of the authors who have studied it to the point that it has come to be considered a unit of study of administration (Hernandez, 2002). In this process, motivation is directly related to the management stage, as it is part of the process in which interactions with the human process involved are established.

In order to achieve the objectives of any organization, it is necessary to carry out different tasks and activities (Münch, 1997). These activities can be divided into areas or departments. From this principle of division of activities arises the functional areas. Taking these divisions into account, motivation is part of human capital, an area of paramount importance in the functioning of any organization.

From the above, we can situate the research subject as an interaction between the functional area of human capital and the management of the administrative process.

 

Figure 5. Importance of motivation in administration

 

The behavior of the human factor is complicated, and trying to understand it has been the subject of research by different theorists. Taylor (1911) laid the first foundations for manipulating and modeling human thought, precisely its motivation. Koenes (1996, p. 191) defines it as “an emotional state that is generated in a person as a consequence of the influence that certain motives exert on their behavior.” the motives can be translated into factors or variables.

Salazar (2005) carried out a study in which he broke down the triggers involved in motivation and work performance in the female sector of a company. However, the theory indicates that the factors can be generalized for both genders; for example, the theory of needs represents one of the most important in any study of motivation (Maslow, 1943); in his contribution, Maslow classifies and weights the needs that every human being has, this contribution is of utmost importance for this research and will be helpful in the creation of the data collection instrument, his theory will provide us with an approximation of the parameters that we will find, and it will also be beneficial for the creation of an impact scale for each need.

Different approaches are used to classify motivation factors. Maslow (1943) divides them into five factors and weights their importance in the form of a pyramid, while Herzberg (1954) presents the motivation-hygiene theory in which he establishes that employees' motivation level has two large groups of factors. He identifies hygiene factors that are mainly related to the organizational climate and its physical environment. Salazar (2009) complements the theory in his research, in which he indicates that the environment and context in which the employee develops will directly influence his or her performance. Herzberg (1954) proposes that in addition to hygiene factors, motivational or satisfaction factors are related to intrinsic aspects and recognition or affiliation.

 

Theories of motivation

In general, motivation theories seek to understand the interaction between human processes, perceptions, feelings, and behaviors. Regardless of the work environment, motivational theories play an important role in psychological and social aspects. The main theories and their interaction with the present research are analyzed below.

Ivancevich (2015) explains the division of motivational theories into content theories and process theories. In his work, he describes theories that study people's internal factors, such as desires, needs, and goals. These theories are called content, while the theories that study motivational processes and the choices that people consciously make are called process theories.

Vroom's Expectancy Theory (1964) and McClelland's Theory of Needs (1953) are the theories directly involved with research.

 

Figure 6. Theoretical foundations of the research

 

McClelland's theory of needs

David Clarence McClelland (1917–1998) was a prominent psychologist who had significant studies and publications in the area of human needs, more specifically in the area of human motivation. For McClelland, all motivation is based on emotion and consists of a cause of change in a human situation (Perilla, 1998), with clear psychological influences from Max Weber. McClelland, in his eagerness  to find a solution to the reliability and quantification of motivation, postulates his theory of needs in which he establishes three main components:

·      Achievement

·      Power

·      Affiliation.

 

David McClelland's theory classifies motivational factors into achievement, power, and affiliation needs (McClelland, 1953). Thus, motivation can be studied from an intrinsic approach, considering only the variables that influence the employee and not his or her environment. Supporting this theory, Ogliastri (2008) is quoted as determining that the level of affiliation is a determining factor in the actions of the employee and consequently in their performance; Robbins (2009) supports the theory as they describe motivation as a process of interaction of the individual with their development in the organization.

McClelland originally defined his theory in terms of “needs”; however, different authors present the components as “factors” regardless of the name of the term; the characteristics of each group are evident, in the same way the form of interaction and influence of each factor on individuals varies, not only by the authors but also by the social and demographic conditions in which each piece of research is carried out, they cannot be weighted or ordered by their influence as Maslow's hierarchy of needs does.

The achievement factor, also called the realization factor, refers to all the aspects related to the goals and objectives that the individual wishes to achieve and, as this feeling causes specific behaviors (Hernandez, 2002), the affiliation factor reflects the desire to belong to a group and to interact socially. People with a high need for affiliation are motivated by the quality of interpersonal relationships in their workspace (Ivancevich, 2015); the need for power is based on the desire to control and exert influence over others; individuals with high scores in this need are positively influenced by competitive situations in which they are in charge (Chiavenato, 2009).

McClelland's theory of needs is also called the acquired needs theory (Robbins, 2009), as achievement, power, and affiliation are presented as components that the individual acquires (not innate) during social and labor development. Similarly, Robbins delves into the importance of knowing the predominant motivational factor in the personnel; the correct satisfaction of the need with the greatest influence on the personnel will produce a better job performance for the individual.

 

Vroom's Expectancy Theory

The most complete and accepted theory for understanding motivational processes and personnel behavior about motivation is Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory (Robbins, 2005), which can be classified as a process. It states that human beings tend to present specific behaviors based on the expectations of particular factors. The concepts that Vroom presents as the basis of his theory are:

·      Expectancy

·      Instrumentality

·      Valence

 

A valid parameter for understanding motivational theories is understanding the concept of motivation that each author presents. In Vroom's case, he defines motivation as a process that governs choices between alternative forms of voluntary activity (Ivancevich, 2015). As can be seen, Vroom emphasizes the process, which is why his theory focuses on explaining how people choose a behavior from a set of options (Chiavenato, 2009).

 

Figure 7. Vroom's Expectancy Theory

 

When Vroom's theory is observed in order, expectation is the first factor that influences human behavior. This variable is the relationship between individual effort and performance (Robbins, 2005). The confidence that the individual perceives in his or her ability to achieve the objectives is the determining factor in calculating the level of expectation. The degree of difficulty of the task and the skills that the worker has at his or her disposal also influence this factor. Behavior and degree of effort are affected by the employee's expectation of achieving the assigned goal.

Secondly, in order of interaction, the instrumentality variable is defined as the perception that the worker associates between the performance that has been achieved and the promised rewards (Ivancevich, 2015), as with the expectations factor, instrumentality is based on the belief or possibility that the individual perceives about the relationship between performance and rewards (Chiavenato, 2007), the relationship between these two variables is fundamental to understanding and predicting the performance of human resources, in the present investigation correlations were made between these two variables.

Finally, the valence variable is presented; within Vroom's theory of expectations, valence is the importance that the individual attaches to a potential prize or reward that can be achieved if the established goals are met (Robbins, 2005). Similarly, in another of his works, Robbins (2009) shares, “If I am given rewards, are they the ones that are personally attractive to me?” referring to the importance that the employee attaches to the promised rewards.

For Vroom, based on his theory, the motivational process involves specific phases. In the initial part, the individual must present a positive perception or level of confidence between individual effort and the performance necessary to meet the imposed goals (expectations), then believe that the performance will lead to the promised rewards (instrumentality), and finally attribute positive value to the established rewards and incentives (valence). If favorable rates are achieved in the three variables of the theory, the performance of human resources will be high.

 

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory

Abraham Maslow was an American psychologist and creator of the best-known theory on motivation. The hierarchy of needs theory originated in Maslow (1943), independent of the conceptualization of five human needs. Maslow's theory is relevant because of the hierarchy he gives to these. For Maslow, motivational incentives can be grouped into five broad categories of needs, which, in order of importance and influence, are as follows (Robbins, 2005):

1.   Physiological needs: This includes all the needs inherent to the human biological process, such as food, procreation, and housing.

2.   Security needs: This category includes the desire for protection from physical and emotional dangers that may affect the individual.

3.   Social needs include the needs that arise from interaction with social life, including concepts such as belonging, association, and affiliation.

4.   Esteem needs are related to how the individual conceives and evaluates him or herself, involving factors such as self-esteem and confidence.

5.   Self-actualization needs: This category includes all the impulses for personal growth and development, with the satisfaction of achieving goals representing the primary motivation.

 

Authors such as Chiavenato (2007) organize Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory in the form of a pyramid, which brings its conceptualization and order closer to Maslow's original conception. In these schemes, physiological needs are placed at the base of the pyramid, representing their greatest influence on human behavior, and the other needs are organized in an ascending way in the pyramid.

 

Herzberg's two-factor theory

The two-factor theory, also known as the motivation and hygiene theory, was proposed by Frederick Herzberg. Its premise was the explanation of human behavior based on two factors, hygiene, and motivation (Robbins & Judge, 2009); motivation depends on extrinsic factors (hygiene factors) and intrinsic factors (motivational factors), which, in addition to influencing behavior, are the variables that determine the level of motivation to work. For Herzberg, the two factors are (Chiavenato, 2007):

Hygiene factors: these include all the variables external to the individual in their job, for example, the physical space, organizational policies, salary, and social and working conditions. According to Herzberg's theory, these variables must maintain at least non-dissatisfaction. Although they are typically used to motivate employees, their effects are momentary; as explained by (Hernandez, 2002), these variables only move the threshold of needs and do not satisfy them completely.

Motivational factors: this factor includes all the variables related to the job conditions, such as achievement, recognition, and responsibility (Ivancevich, 2015); their fulfillment and satisfaction will produce high and lasting motivation levels, reflected in better results for the organization.

 

McGregor's X and Y theory

Personality is a determining factor when researching work motivation. In his postulate, McGregor (1960) describes two personality models: X and Y theory. McGregor identifies two groups of personalities, and he assigns a letter as a distinctive feature. He takes into account characteristic behavioral traits such as initiative and leadership. The “X” theory establishes a negative view of individual behavior; this postulate states that people with this type of personality have a poor level of initiative towards work and, therefore, need strict control to achieve goals, while people with a “Y” type personality see work as a pleasurable activity and one of self-realization, they can direct themselves towards the achievement of goals and objectives (Robbins, 2005).

Human behavior comprises variables that interact with each other, thus dictating the course of actions taken. Leadership and personality are factors that undoubtedly influence motivation and must be taken into account in research into motivational processes, as in the case of Cortés (2005), who studied types of leadership and their relationship with motivation.

 

Equity theory

Individuals naturally tend to compare themselves to others. John Stacey Adams's equity theory is based on the feelings that workers experience when comparing themselves to their other collaborators. Ivancevich (2015) classified it as a content theory. The equity theory establishes that an employee's level of motivation is directly proportional to the level of equity they perceive in the organization.

Equity theory was a pioneer in using the term motivational process. It is based on the comparison people make between the rewards and recognition they receive and those received by others, regardless of the satisfaction of meeting a need or achieving the desired rewards (Chiavenato, 2009). Equity theory proposes that the level of motivation will depend on the equality and fairness perceived by the employee in relation to the distribution of these rewards. A high degree of motivation reflects a positive perception of fairness.

Considering the theories presented, the importance of each of them for understanding human behavior is evident. It is not possible to discard or disapprove of the different perspectives on motivation; for this reason, and the present research, the motivational factors on which the study was based are those proposed in McClelland's (1953) theory of needs (Achievement, Power, Affiliation) and their relationship with work performance is based on Vroom's (1964) theory of expectations.

 

Performance and output

The analysis and differentiation of performance and output are fundamental for research, and both are highly used in administrative areas. Robbins (2005) the author uses both terms as synonyms; he defines them as the final result of activity. In Hernandez (2002), the author makes use of the term output about numerical terms or results; in the same work, he uses performance to refer to administrative processes; in topics related to organizational behavior, Ivancevich (2015) uses the term performance to refer to the result of motivational processes, more precisely it is used in topics such as McClelland's theory of expectations and theory of needs, in the same way (Chiavenato, 2007) makes exclusive use of the term performance to refer to the evaluation of human resource actions.

 

CONCLUSIONS

The present study analyzed the influence of thoughts, perceptions, and emotions on employees' behavior and work performance in companies in Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco. Based on the theoretical review and data analysis, it was evident that motivation plays a fundamental role in staff performance and the achievement of organizational objectives. Vroom's expectation theory and McClelland's needs theory allowed for the structured analysis of motivational factors and their impact on employee behavior.

The results indicate that workers' expectations about the relationship between effort and reward directly influence their level of performance. In turn, the perception of fairness and the importance given to established rewards affect their level of commitment and productivity. Instrumentality, the belief that good performance will lead to tangible benefits, was also identified as a determining factor in work motivation.

From McClelland's approach, it was observed that the need for achievement, power, and affiliation varies among workers depending on individual factors and the organizational environment. Motivation is not homogeneous, so companies must adapt their strategies considering the characteristics and expectations of their human capital. In this way, it is possible to develop incentive programs and management models that foster commitment and efficiency in performance.

The study also underlined the importance of leadership and organizational culture in employee motivation and performance. Appropriate leadership, based on an understanding of workers' needs, contributes significantly to improving productivity and the working environment. In addition, it was found that organizational structures that are more flexible and adaptable to staff needs favor employee satisfaction and performance.

In terms of methodology, the quantitative approach allowed correlations to be established between the proposed variables and conclusions to be drawn based on objective data. Likewise, the methodological tool designed can be used in future research to deepen the analysis of motivation and work performance in different organizational contexts.

In conclusion, the research highlights the relevance of motivation in the administration and management of human talent. Understanding and applying strategies based on the theories of Vroom and McClelland can optimize business productivity and strengthen worker commitment. It is recommended that organizations implement management models that integrate these principles to maximize the performance and satisfaction of their personnel.

 

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FINANCING

None.

 

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

 

AUTHORSHIP CONTRIBUTION

Data curation: Benjamín Villegas Alcántar.

Methodology: Benjamín Villegas Alcántar.

Software: Benjamín Villegas Alcántar.

Drafting - original draft: Benjamín Villegas Alcántar.

Writing - proofreading and editing: Benjamín Villegas Alcántar.